PL: Lecture #7  Tuesday, January 30th
(text)

The FLANG Language

Now for the implementation — we call this new language FLANG.

First, the BNF:

<FLANG> ::= <num>
          | { + <FLANG> <FLANG> }
          | { - <FLANG> <FLANG> }
          | { * <FLANG> <FLANG> }
          | { / <FLANG> <FLANG> }
          | { with { <id> <FLANG> } <FLANG> }
          | <id>
          | { fun { <id> } <FLANG> }
          | { call <FLANG> <FLANG> }

And the matching type definition:

(define-type FLANG
  [Num  Number]
  [Add  FLANG FLANG]
  [Sub  FLANG FLANG]
  [Mul  FLANG FLANG]
  [Div  FLANG FLANG]
  [Id  Symbol]
  [With Symbol FLANG FLANG]
  [Fun  Symbol      FLANG] ; No named-expression
  [Call FLANG FLANG])

The parser for this grammar is, as usual, straightforward:

(: parse-sexpr : Sexpr -> FLANG)
;; parses s-expressions into FLANGs
(define (parse-sexpr sexpr)
  (match sexpr
    [(number: n)    (Num n)]
    [(symbol: name) (Id name)]
    [(cons 'with more)
    (match sexpr
      [(list 'with (list (symbol: name) named) body)
        (With name (parse-sexpr named) (parse-sexpr body))]
      [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad `with' syntax in ~s" sexpr)])]
    [(cons 'fun more)
    (match sexpr
      [(list 'fun (list (symbol: name)) body)
        (Fun name (parse-sexpr body))]
      [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad `fun' syntax in ~s" sexpr)])]
    [(list '+ lhs rhs) (Add (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '- lhs rhs) (Sub (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '* lhs rhs) (Mul (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '/ lhs rhs) (Div (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list 'call fun arg)
                      (Call (parse-sexpr fun) (parse-sexpr arg))]
    [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad syntax in ~s" sexpr)]))

We also need to patch up the substitution function to deal with these things. The scoping rule for the new function form is, unsurprisingly, similar to the rule of with, except that there is no extra expression now, and the scoping rule for call is the same as for the arithmetic operators:

N[v/x]                = N

{+ E1 E2}[v/x]        = {+ E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}

{- E1 E2}[v/x]        = {- E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}

{* E1 E2}[v/x]        = {* E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}

{/ E1 E2}[v/x]        = {/ E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}

y[v/x]                = y
x[v/x]                = v

{with {y E1} E2}[v/x] = {with {y E1[v/x]} E2[v/x]}
{with {x E1} E2}[v/x] = {with {x E1[v/x]} E2}

{call E1 E2}[v/x]    = {call E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}

{fun {y} E}[v/x]      = {fun {y} E[v/x]}
{fun {x} E}[v/x]      = {fun {x} E}

And the matching code:

(: subst : FLANG Symbol FLANG -> FLANG)
;; substitutes the second argument with the third argument in the
;; first argument, as per the rules of substitution; the resulting
;; expression contains no free instances of the second argument
(define (subst expr from to)
  (cases expr
    [(Num n) expr]
    [(Add l r) (Add (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Sub l r) (Sub (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Mul l r) (Mul (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Div l r) (Div (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Id name) (if (eq? name from) to expr)]
    [(With bound-id named-expr bound-body)
    (With bound-id
          (subst named-expr from to)
          (if (eq? bound-id from)
            bound-body
            (subst bound-body from to)))]
    [(Call l r) (Call (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Fun bound-id bound-body)
    (if (eq? bound-id from)
      expr
      (Fun bound-id (subst bound-body from to)))]))

Now, before we start working on an evaluator, we need to decide on what exactly do we use to represent values of this language. Before we had functions, we had only number values and we used Racket numbers to represent them. Now we have two kinds of values — numbers and functions. It seems easy enough to continue using Racket numbers to represent numbers, but what about functions? What should be the result of evaluating

{fun {x} {+ x 1}}

? Well, this is the new toy we have: it should be a function value, which is something that can be used just like numbers, but instead of arithmetic operations, we can call these things. What we need is a way to avoid evaluating the body expression of the function — delay it — and instead use some value that will contain this delayed expression in a way that can be used later.

To accommodate this, we will change our implementation strategy a little: we will use our syntax objects for numbers ((Num n) instead of just n), which will be a little inconvenient when we do the arithmetic operations, but it will simplify life by making it possible to evaluate functions in a similar way: simply return their own syntax object as their values. The syntax object has what we need: the body expression that needs to be evaluated later when the function is called, and it also has the identifier name that should be replaced with the actual input to the function call. This means that evaluating:

(Add (Num 1) (Num 2))

now yields

(Num 3)

and a number (Num 5) evaluates to (Num 5).

In a similar way, (Fun 'x (Num 2)) evaluates to (Fun 'x (Num 2)).

Why would this work? Well, because call will be very similar to with — the only difference is that its arguments are ordered a little differently, being retrieved from the function that is applied and the argument.

The formal evaluation rules are therefore treating functions like numbers, and use the syntax object to represent both values:

eval(N)        = N

eval({+ E1 E2}) = eval(E1) + eval(E2)

eval({- E1 E2}) = eval(E1) - eval(E2)

eval({* E1 E2}) = eval(E1) * eval(E2)

eval({/ E1 E2}) = eval(E1) / eval(E2)

eval(id)        = error!

eval({with {x E1} E2}) = eval(E2[eval(E1)/x])

eval(FUN)      = FUN ; assuming FUN is a function expression

eval({call E1 E2})
                = eval(B[eval(E2)/x])  if eval(E1) = {fun {x} B}
                = error!                otherwise

Note that the last rule could be written using a translation to a with expression:

eval({call E1 E2})
                = eval({with {x E2} B}) if eval(E1) = {fun {x} B}
                = error!                otherwise

And alternatively, we could specify with using call and fun:

eval({with {x E1} E2}) = eval({call {fun {x} E2} E1})

There is a small problem in these rules which is intuitively seen by the fact that the evaluation rule for a call is expected to be very similar to the one for arithmetic operations. We now have two kinds of values, so we need to check the arithmetic operation’s arguments too:

eval({+ E1 E2}) = N1 + N2
                    if eval(E1), eval(E2) evaluate to numbers N1, N2
                    otherwise error!
...

The corresponding code is:

(: eval : FLANG -> FLANG)                      ;*** note return type
;; evaluates FLANG expressions by reducing them to *expressions* but
;; only expressions that stand for values: only `Fun`s and `Num`s
(define (eval expr)
  (cases expr
    [(Num n) expr]                            ;*** change here
    [(Add l r) (arith-op + (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Sub l r) (arith-op - (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Mul l r) (arith-op * (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Div l r) (arith-op / (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(With bound-id named-expr bound-body)
    (eval (subst bound-body
                  bound-id
                  (eval named-expr)))]        ;*** no `(Num ...)'
    [(Id name) (error 'eval "free identifier: ~s" name)]
    [(Fun bound-id bound-body) expr]          ;*** similar to `Num'
    [(Call (Fun bound-id bound-body) arg-expr) ;*** nested pattern
    (eval (subst bound-body                  ;*** just like `with'
                  bound-id
                  (eval arg-expr)))]
    [(Call something arg-expr)
    (error 'eval "`call' expects a function, got: ~s" something)]))

Note that the Call case is doing the same thing we do in the With case. In fact, we could have just generated a With expression and evaluate that instead:

    ...
    [(Call (Fun bound-id bound-body) arg-expr)
    (eval (With bound-id arg-expr bound-body))]
    ...

The arith-op function is in charge of checking that the input values are numbers (represented as FLANG numbers), translating them to plain numbers, performing the Racket operation, then re-wrapping the result in a Num. Note how its type indicates that it is a higher-order function.

(: arith-op : (Number Number -> Number) FLANG FLANG -> FLANG)
;; gets a Racket numeric binary operator, and uses it within a FLANG
;; `Num' wrapper (note the H.O. type, and note the hack of the `val`
;; name which is actually an AST that represents a runtime value)
(define (arith-op op val1 val2)
  (Num (op (Num->number val1) (Num->number val2))))

It uses the following function to convert FLANG numbers to Racket numbers. (Note that else is almost always a bad idea since it can prevent the compiler from showing you places to edit code — but this case is an exception since we never want to deal with anything other than Nums.) The reason that this function is relatively trivial is that we chose the easy way and represented numbers using Racket numbers, but we could have used strings or anything else.

(: Num->number : FLANG -> Number)
;; convert a FLANG number to a Racket one
(define (Num->number e)
  (cases e
    [(Num n) n]
    [else (error 'arith-op "expected a number, got: ~s" e)]))

We can also make things a little easier to use if we make run convert the result to a number:

(: run : String -> Number)
;; evaluate a FLANG program contained in a string
(define (run str)
  (let ([result (eval (parse str))])
    (cases result
      [(Num n) n]
      [else (error 'run "evaluation returned a non-number: ~s"
                  result)])))

Adding few simple tests we get:

;; The Flang interpreter

#lang pl

#|
The grammar:
  <FLANG> ::= <num>
            | { + <FLANG> <FLANG> }
            | { - <FLANG> <FLANG> }
            | { * <FLANG> <FLANG> }
            | { / <FLANG> <FLANG> }
            | { with { <id> <FLANG> } <FLANG> }
            | <id>
            | { fun { <id> } <FLANG> }
            | { call <FLANG> <FLANG> }

Evaluation rules:

  subst:
    N[v/x]                = N
    {+ E1 E2}[v/x]        = {+ E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    {- E1 E2}[v/x]        = {- E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    {* E1 E2}[v/x]        = {* E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    {/ E1 E2}[v/x]        = {/ E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    y[v/x]                = y
    x[v/x]                = v
    {with {y E1} E2}[v/x] = {with {y E1[v/x]} E2[v/x]} ; if y =/= x
    {with {x E1} E2}[v/x] = {with {x E1[v/x]} E2}
    {call E1 E2}[v/x]    = {call E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    {fun {y} E}[v/x]      = {fun {y} E[v/x]}          ; if y =/= x
    {fun {x} E}[v/x]      = {fun {x} E}

  eval:
    eval(N)            = N
    eval({+ E1 E2})    = eval(E1) + eval(E2)  \ if both E1 and E2
    eval({- E1 E2})    = eval(E1) - eval(E2)  \ evaluate to numbers
    eval({* E1 E2})    = eval(E1) * eval(E2)  / otherwise error!
    eval({/ E1 E2})    = eval(E1) / eval(E2)  /
    eval(id)          = error!
    eval({with {x E1} E2}) = eval(E2[eval(E1)/x])
    eval(FUN)          = FUN ; assuming FUN is a function expression
    eval({call E1 E2}) = eval(B[eval(E2)/x])
                          if eval(E1)={fun {x} B}, otherwise error!
|#

(define-type FLANG
  [Num  Number]
  [Add  FLANG FLANG]
  [Sub  FLANG FLANG]
  [Mul  FLANG FLANG]
  [Div  FLANG FLANG]
  [Id  Symbol]
  [With Symbol FLANG FLANG]
  [Fun  Symbol FLANG]
  [Call FLANG FLANG])

(: parse-sexpr : Sexpr -> FLANG)
;; parses s-expressions into FLANGs
(define (parse-sexpr sexpr)
  (match sexpr
    [(number: n)    (Num n)]
    [(symbol: name) (Id name)]
    [(cons 'with more)
    (match sexpr
      [(list 'with (list (symbol: name) named) body)
        (With name (parse-sexpr named) (parse-sexpr body))]
      [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad `with' syntax in ~s" sexpr)])]
    [(cons 'fun more)
    (match sexpr
      [(list 'fun (list (symbol: name)) body)
        (Fun name (parse-sexpr body))]
      [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad `fun' syntax in ~s" sexpr)])]
    [(list '+ lhs rhs) (Add (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '- lhs rhs) (Sub (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '* lhs rhs) (Mul (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '/ lhs rhs) (Div (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list 'call fun arg)
                      (Call (parse-sexpr fun) (parse-sexpr arg))]
    [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad syntax in ~s" sexpr)]))

(: parse : String -> FLANG)
;; parses a string containing a FLANG expression to a FLANG AST
(define (parse str)
  (parse-sexpr (string->sexpr str)))

(: subst : FLANG Symbol FLANG -> FLANG)
;; substitutes the second argument with the third argument in the
;; first argument, as per the rules of substitution; the resulting
;; expression contains no free instances of the second argument
(define (subst expr from to)
  (cases expr
    [(Num n) expr]
    [(Add l r) (Add (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Sub l r) (Sub (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Mul l r) (Mul (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Div l r) (Div (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Id name) (if (eq? name from) to expr)]
    [(With bound-id named-expr bound-body)
    (With bound-id
          (subst named-expr from to)
          (if (eq? bound-id from)
            bound-body
            (subst bound-body from to)))]
    [(Call l r) (Call (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Fun bound-id bound-body)
    (if (eq? bound-id from)
      expr
      (Fun bound-id (subst bound-body from to)))]))

(: Num->number : FLANG -> Number)
;; convert a FLANG number to a Racket one
(define (Num->number e)
  (cases e
    [(Num n) n]
    [else (error 'arith-op "expected a number, got: ~s" e)]))

(: arith-op : (Number Number -> Number) FLANG FLANG -> FLANG)
;; gets a Racket numeric binary operator, and uses it within a FLANG
;; `Num' wrapper
(define (arith-op op val1 val2)
  (Num (op (Num->number val1) (Num->number val2))))

(: eval : FLANG -> FLANG)
;; evaluates FLANG expressions by reducing them to *expressions* but
;; only expressions that stand for values: only `Fun`s and `Num`s
(define (eval expr)
  (cases expr
    [(Num n) expr]
    [(Add l r) (arith-op + (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Sub l r) (arith-op - (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Mul l r) (arith-op * (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Div l r) (arith-op / (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(With bound-id named-expr bound-body)
    (eval (subst bound-body
                  bound-id
                  (eval named-expr)))]
    [(Id name) (error 'eval "free identifier: ~s" name)]
    [(Fun bound-id bound-body) expr]
    [(Call (Fun bound-id bound-body) arg-expr)
    (eval (subst bound-body
                  bound-id
                  (eval arg-expr)))]
    [(Call something arg-expr)
    (error 'eval "`call' expects a function, got: ~s" something)]))

(: run : String -> Number)
;; evaluate a FLANG program contained in a string
(define (run str)
  (let ([result (eval (parse str))])
    (cases result
      [(Num n) n]
      [else (error 'run "evaluation returned a non-number: ~s"
                  result)])))

;; tests
(test (run "{call {fun {x} {+ x 1}} 4}")
      => 5)
(test (run "{with {add3 {fun {x} {+ x 3}}}
              {call add3 1}}")
      => 4)
(test (run "{with {add3 {fun {x} {+ x 3}}}
              {with {add1 {fun {x} {+ x 1}}}
                {with {x 3}
                  {call add1 {call add3 x}}}}}")
      => 7)

There is still a problem with this version. First a question — if call is similar to arithmetic operations (and to with in what it actually does), then how come the code is different enough that it doesn’t even need an auxiliary function?

Second question: what should happen if we evaluate these code snippets:

(run "{with {add {fun {x}
                  {fun {y}
                    {+ x y}}}}
      {call {call add 8} 9}}")
(run "{with {identity {fun {x} x}}
        {with {foo {fun {x} {+ x 1}}}
          {call {call identity foo} 123}}}")
(run "{call {call {fun {x} {call x 1}}
                  {fun {x} {fun {y} {+ x y}}}}
            123}")

Third question, what will happen if we do the above?

What we’re missing is an evaluation of the function expression, in case it’s not a literal fun form. The following fixes this:

(: eval : FLANG -> FLANG)
;; evaluates FLANG expressions by reducing them to *expressions* but
;; only expressions that stand for values: only `Fun`s and `Num`s
(define (eval expr)
  (cases expr
    [(Num n) expr]
    [(Add l r) (arith-op + (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Sub l r) (arith-op - (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Mul l r) (arith-op * (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Div l r) (arith-op / (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(With bound-id named-expr bound-body)
    (eval (subst bound-body
                  bound-id
                  (eval named-expr)))]
    [(Id name) (error 'eval "free identifier: ~s" name)]
    [(Fun bound-id bound-body) expr]
    [(Call fun-expr arg-expr)
    (define fval (eval fun-expr))      ;*** need to evaluate this!
    (cases fval
      [(Fun bound-id bound-body)
        (eval (subst bound-body bound-id (eval arg-expr)))]
      [else (error 'eval "`call' expects a function, got: ~s"
                    fval)])]))

The complete code is:


flang.rkt D ;; The Flang interpreter

#lang pl

#|
The grammar:
  <FLANG> ::= <num>
            | { + <FLANG> <FLANG> }
            | { - <FLANG> <FLANG> }
            | { * <FLANG> <FLANG> }
            | { / <FLANG> <FLANG> }
            | { with { <id> <FLANG> } <FLANG> }
            | <id>
            | { fun { <id> } <FLANG> }
            | { call <FLANG> <FLANG> }

Evaluation rules:

  subst:
    N[v/x]                = N
    {+ E1 E2}[v/x]        = {+ E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    {- E1 E2}[v/x]        = {- E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    {* E1 E2}[v/x]        = {* E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    {/ E1 E2}[v/x]        = {/ E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    y[v/x]                = y
    x[v/x]                = v
    {with {y E1} E2}[v/x] = {with {y E1[v/x]} E2[v/x]} ; if y =/= x
    {with {x E1} E2}[v/x] = {with {x E1[v/x]} E2}
    {call E1 E2}[v/x]    = {call E1[v/x] E2[v/x]}
    {fun {y} E}[v/x]      = {fun {y} E[v/x]}          ; if y =/= x
    {fun {x} E}[v/x]      = {fun {x} E}

  eval:
    eval(N)            = N
    eval({+ E1 E2})    = eval(E1) + eval(E2)  \ if both E1 and E2
    eval({- E1 E2})    = eval(E1) - eval(E2)  \ evaluate to numbers
    eval({* E1 E2})    = eval(E1) * eval(E2)  / otherwise error!
    eval({/ E1 E2})    = eval(E1) / eval(E2)  /
    eval(id)          = error!
    eval({with {x E1} E2}) = eval(E2[eval(E1)/x])
    eval(FUN)          = FUN ; assuming FUN is a function expression
    eval({call E1 E2}) = eval(B[eval(E2)/x])
                          if eval(E1)={fun {x} B}, otherwise error!
|#

(define-type FLANG
  [Num  Number]
  [Add  FLANG FLANG]
  [Sub  FLANG FLANG]
  [Mul  FLANG FLANG]
  [Div  FLANG FLANG]
  [Id  Symbol]
  [With Symbol FLANG FLANG]
  [Fun  Symbol FLANG]
  [Call FLANG FLANG])

(: parse-sexpr : Sexpr -> FLANG)
;; parses s-expressions into FLANGs
(define (parse-sexpr sexpr)
  (match sexpr
    [(number: n)    (Num n)]
    [(symbol: name) (Id name)]
    [(cons 'with more)
    (match sexpr
      [(list 'with (list (symbol: name) named) body)
        (With name (parse-sexpr named) (parse-sexpr body))]
      [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad `with' syntax in ~s" sexpr)])]
    [(cons 'fun more)
    (match sexpr
      [(list 'fun (list (symbol: name)) body)
        (Fun name (parse-sexpr body))]
      [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad `fun' syntax in ~s" sexpr)])]
    [(list '+ lhs rhs) (Add  (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '- lhs rhs) (Sub  (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '* lhs rhs) (Mul  (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list '/ lhs rhs) (Div  (parse-sexpr lhs) (parse-sexpr rhs))]
    [(list 'call fun arg)
                      (Call (parse-sexpr fun) (parse-sexpr arg))]
    [else (error 'parse-sexpr "bad syntax in ~s" sexpr)]))

(: parse : String -> FLANG)
;; parses a string containing a FLANG expression to a FLANG AST
(define (parse str)
  (parse-sexpr (string->sexpr str)))

(: subst : FLANG Symbol FLANG -> FLANG)
;; substitutes the second argument with the third argument in the
;; first argument, as per the rules of substitution; the resulting
;; expression contains no free instances of the second argument
(define (subst expr from to)
  (cases expr
    [(Num n) expr]
    [(Add l r) (Add (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Sub l r) (Sub (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Mul l r) (Mul (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Div l r) (Div (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Id name) (if (eq? name from) to expr)]
    [(With bound-id named-expr bound-body)
    (With bound-id
          (subst named-expr from to)
          (if (eq? bound-id from)
            bound-body
            (subst bound-body from to)))]
    [(Call l r) (Call (subst l from to) (subst r from to))]
    [(Fun bound-id bound-body)
    (if (eq? bound-id from)
      expr
      (Fun bound-id (subst bound-body from to)))]))

(: Num->number : FLANG -> Number)
;; convert a FLANG number to a Racket one
(define (Num->number e)
  (cases e
    [(Num n) n]
    [else (error 'arith-op "expected a number, got: ~s" e)]))

(: arith-op : (Number Number -> Number) FLANG FLANG -> FLANG)
;; gets a Racket numeric binary operator, and uses it within a FLANG
;; `Num' wrapper
(define (arith-op op val1 val2)
  (Num (op (Num->number val1) (Num->number val2))))

(: eval : FLANG -> FLANG)
;; evaluates FLANG expressions by reducing them to *expressions* but
;; only expressions that stand for values: only `Fun`s and `Num`s
(define (eval expr)
  (cases expr
    [(Num n) expr]
    [(Add l r) (arith-op + (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Sub l r) (arith-op - (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Mul l r) (arith-op * (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(Div l r) (arith-op / (eval l) (eval r))]
    [(With bound-id named-expr bound-body)
    (eval (subst bound-body
                  bound-id
                  (eval named-expr)))]
    [(Id name) (error 'eval "free identifier: ~s" name)]
    [(Fun bound-id bound-body) expr]
    [(Call fun-expr arg-expr)
    (define fval (eval fun-expr))
    (cases fval
      [(Fun bound-id bound-body)
        (eval (subst bound-body bound-id (eval arg-expr)))]
      [else (error 'eval "`call' expects a function, got: ~s"
                    fval)])]))

(: run : String -> Number)
;; evaluate a FLANG program contained in a string
(define (run str)
  (let ([result (eval (parse str))])
    (cases result
      [(Num n) n]
      [else (error 'run "evaluation returned a non-number: ~s"
                  result)])))

;; tests
(test (run "{call {fun {x} {+ x 1}} 4}")
      => 5)
(test (run "{with {add3 {fun {x} {+ x 3}}}
              {call add3 1}}")
      => 4)
(test (run "{with {add3 {fun {x} {+ x 3}}}
              {with {add1 {fun {x} {+ x 1}}}
                {with {x 3}
                  {call add1 {call add3 x}}}}}")
      => 7)
(test (run "{with {add {fun {x}
                        {fun {y}
                          {+ x y}}}}
              {call {call add 8} 9}}")
      => 17)
(test (run "{with {identity {fun {x} x}}
              {with {foo {fun {x} {+ x 1}}}
                {call {call identity foo} 123}}}")
      => 124)
(test (run "{call {call {fun {x} {call x 1}}
                        {fun {x} {fun {y} {+ x y}}}}
                  123}")
      => 124)